American Journal of Archaeology

After the annexation of Gaul into the Roman empire, a new religious practice began in the Gallic provinces: offering votive objects representing either parts of the body or the entire body at healing sanctuaries. Analysis of these votives offers a unique way to study the identities of women, especially nonelite women who are often archaeologically invisible. Representational healing votives allow for study of gendered experiences of colonialism in Roman Gaul because women and men were positioned differently with respect to the colonial power structure. This study of 1,050 published votive objects reveals gendered differences in body parts represented, materials used, and preferred artistic style. In scholarship on gendered behavior in colonial contexts, it is commonly argued that women generally acted as guardians of indigenous cultural practices while men more readily took on the culture of the colonizer. The results of the present examination suggest that, in Gallo-Roman healing religion, the opposite was true: while men more often referenced an indigenous identity in their votives, women represented themselves in a Roman manner more often. These results have significant implications for our understanding of gendered experiences of colonialism in the Roman provinces.

This paper critically assesses the transformation of material culture assemblages on Crete between its conquest by Rome in 69–67 B.C.E. and the mid first century C.E. by first applying the frameworks of eventful archaeology and globalization. These paradigms demonstrate that the conquest, despite being an important historical event, was not the primary impetus behind transformation of material culture assemblages but instead served as a preliminary step for gradual transition that varied in pace across Crete. Previous analyses have highlighted the mid first century C.E. as the point when transformation becomes evident even at sites resistant to change up to that point. An explanation of the specific factors that led to this situation, however, is lacking. Building on an argument tied to globalization that investment is a key variable behind gradual transformation, this paper examines economic developments on Crete before and after Rome’s conquest—including infrastructure expansion, increase in agricultural output, and the growth of social and economic networks—that permitted increased connectivity with other regions of the Roman empire. These developments, which led to intensification of economic contacts by the mid first century C.E., particularly with Italy, provided a conduit for transformation to reach all sectors of the island.

This article focuses on periodization in ancient art history, on aesthetic notions and judgments in ancient literary sources, and on the creation of the modern stylistic and cultural classification of the Severe Style period. Conventionally, this stylistic phase spans from ca. 480 to 450 B.C.E. and is generally associated with a new style adopted by artists soon after the Persian Wars and with the sculptural group of the Tyrannicides by Kritios and Nesiotes. This investigation provides an overview of the artistic production by Kritios and Nesiotes and analysis of signed monuments from the Athenian Acropolis; an examination of literary sources concerning Kritios and Nesiotes and aesthetic judgments regarding Late Archaic artists and their works in Greek and Latin sources from the end of the fourth century to the Early Imperial period; and an exploration of the modern meaning of the Greek and Latin words skleros and durus (“rigid, motionless, stiff” rather than “severe”). I propose that it is not possible to distinguish such a “Severe Style period,” since technical and stylistic improvements are detectable on statues dating from before 480 B.C.E., and that a paradigm of continuity, as suggested by ancient literary sources and archaeological evidence, is preferable to a clear-cut division of artistic periods and styles.

Our study of Black-on-Red sherds found in well-stratified Iron IIA contexts at Megiddo shows that the earliest examples of this ware appear in an early stage of the Late Iron IIA, radiocarbon dated to the late 10th to early ninth century B.C.E. An archaeometric analysis of 10 sherds reveals that they were manufactured in Cyprus, meaning that Black-on-Red vessels were produced on the island as early as ca. 900 B.C.E. This makes Gjerstad’s theory regarding the “Levantine Phase” in the production history of this ware obsolete. It is noteworthy that Black-on-Red vessels of Type IV (dated to the eighth and early seventh centuries B.C.E. based on stylistic considerations) are present in secure contexts in levels Q-5 and Q-4 at Megiddo, radiocarbon dated to the late 10th and ninth centuries B.C.E.

Adornato, G., Kritios and Nesiotes as Revolutionary Artists? Ancient and Archaeological Perspectives on the So-Called Severe Style Period: 557–87

Agre, D., D. Dichev, and G. Agre, Roman Balsamarium Shaped as a Male Head in Feline-Skin Cap from the Territory of Southeast Bulgaria: 687–98

Agre, G. See Agre et al.

Antonaccio, C.M., and K.M. Lynch, Barbara Tsakirgis, 1954–2019: 509–12

Barrientos. See Peña and Barrientos.

Batiuk. See Welton et al.

Bendrey. See Glatz et al.

Bernard, S., Technologies and Narratives of Urban Archaeology at the Kelsey Museum: 523–29

Baysal. See Glatz et al.

Calderbank. See Glatz et al.

Carter, J.B., A Letter from the Editor-in-Chief: 167

Casana. See Glatz et al.

Chelazzi. See Glatz et al.

Cosmopoulos, M.B., State Formation in Greece: Iklaina and the Unification of Mycenaean Pylos: 349–80

Crowther. See Poehler et al.

Del Bravo. See Glatz et al.

Dichev. See Agre et al.

DiLuzio. See Flower and DiLuzio.

Dufton, J.A.,The Architectural and Social Dynamics of Gentrification in Roman North Africa: 263–90

Errata: 707

Erskine. See Glatz et al.

Fantalkin. See Kleiman et al.

Feldman, M.H., The Middle East Galleries at the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia: A Permanent Exhibit: 157–63

Finkelstein. See Kleiman et al.

Fisher, K.D., S.W. Manning, and T.M. Urban, New Approaches to Late Bronze Age Urban Landscapes on Cyprus: Investigations at Kalavasos-Ayios Dhimitrios, 2012–2016: 473–507

Flohr, M., Artisans and Markets: The Economics of Roman Domestic Decoration: 101–25

Flower, H.I., and M.J. DiLuzio, The Women and the Lares: A Reconsideration of an Augustan Altar from the Capitoline in Rome: 213–36

Gallimore, S., An Island in Crisis? Reconsidering the Formation of Roman Crete: 589–617

Giumlia-Mair. See Pollini and Giumlia-Mair.

Glatz,C., J. Casana, R. Bendrey, E. Baysal, D. Calderbank, F. Chelazzi, F. Del Bravo, N. Erskine, M.M. Hald, E.J. Laugier, E. Jensen, and E. Perruchini, Babylonian Encounters in the Upper Diyala River Valley: Contextualizing the Results of Regional Survey and the 2016–2017 Excavations at Khani Masi: 439–71

Hald. See Glatz et al.

Harrison. See Welton et al.

Janeway. See Welton et al.

Jensen. See Glatz et al.

Karakaya. See Welton et al.

Kleiman A., A. Fantalkin, H. Mommsen, and I. Finkelstein, The Date and Origin of Black-on-Red Ware: The View from Megiddo: 531–55

Kontokosta, A.H., Building the Thermae Agrippae: Private Life, Public Space, and the Politics of Bathing in Early Imperial Rome: 45–77

Laugier. See Glatz et al.

Lehmann, S., A German “Leistungsschau”: An Exhibition in Search of a European Image of History: 513–21

Lenaghan, J., Assessing a Roman Copy: The Story of the Syon Aphrodite: 79–100

Liard, F., Pottery Traditions in Northeastern Crete After the Fall of the Minoan Palatial Systems: A Petrographic Approach at Malia and Sissi: 169–212

Lipovitch. See Welton et al.

Lumb. See Welton et al.

Lynch. See Antonaccio and Lynch.

Manning. See Fisher et al.

Meyers, R., A New Analysis of Antonine Statuary Groups in Roman Spain: 127–55

Mommsen. See Kleiman et al.

Oddo, E., Pottery Styles and Social Dynamics at Neopalatial Myrtos-Pyrgos: Identifying Southeast Crete as a Ceramic Region: 19–44

Peña, A., and T. Barrientos, A Relief Decorated with a Griffin Discovered in the Forum Portico in Augusta Emerita (Mérida, Spain): 335–44

Perruchini. See Glatz et al.

Poehler, E., J. van Roggen, and B. Crowther, The Iron Streets of Pompeii: 237–62

Pollini, J., and A. Giumlia-Mair, The Statue of Germanicus from Amelia: New Discoveries: 675–86

Roames. See Welton et al.

Saripanidi, V., Vases, Funerary Practices, and Political Power in the Macedonian Kingdom During the Classical Period Before the Rise of Philip II: 381–410

Sitz, A.M., Beyond Spolia: A New Approach to Old Inscriptions in Late Antique Anatolia: 643–74

Stansbury-O’Donnell, M.D., Daily Life in Ancient Greece at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston: 699–705

Ünlü. See Welton et al.

Urban. See Fisher et al.

van Roggen. See Poehler et al.

Warden, L.A., Tying Technology to Social, Economic, and Political Change: The Case of Bread Molds at Elephantine, Egypt: 1–17

Welton, L., T. Harrison, S. Batiuk, E. Ünlü, B. Janeway, D. Karakaya, D. Lipovitch, D. Lumb, and J. Roames, Shifting Networks and Community Identity at Tell Tayinat in the Iron I (ca. 12th to Mid 10th Century B.C.E.): 291–333

Wigodner, A., Gendered Healing Votives in Roman Gaul: Representing the Body in a Colonial Context: 619–42

Wood, S., Women’s Work and Women’s Myths: Mothers and Children on Ivory Looms: 411–38

Online Only

Supplementary Content

Agre, D., D. Dichev, and G. Agre, Image Gallery: Roman Balsamarium Shaped as a Male Head in Feline-Skin Cap from the Territory of Southeast Bulgaria

Bernard, S., Image Gallery: Technologies and Narratives of Urban Archaeology at the Kelsey Museum

Cosmopoulos, M.B., Image Gallery: State Formation in Greece: Iklaina and the Unification of Mycenaean Pylos

Feldman, M.H., Image Gallery: The Middle East Galleries at the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia: A Permanent Exhibit

Fisher, K.D., S.W. Manning, and T.M. Urban, Image Gallery: New Approaches to Late Bronze Age Urban Landscapes on Cyprus: Investigations at Kalavasos-Ayios Dhimitrios, 2012–2016

Lehmann, S., Image Gallery: A German “Leistungsschau”: An Exhibition in Search of a European Image of History

Peña, A., and T. Barrientos, Image Gallery: A Relief Decorated with a Griffin Discovered in the Forum Portico in Augusta Emerita (Mérida, Spain)

Stansbury-O’Donnell, M.D., Image Gallery: Daily Life in Ancient Greece at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

Welton, L., T. Harrison, S. Batiuk, E. Ünlü, B. Janeway, D. Karakaya, D. Lipovitch, D. Lumb, and J. Roames, Appendix: Shifting Networks and Community Identity at Tell Tayinat in the Iron I (ca. 12th to Mid 10th Century B.C.E.)

Review Article

Burke, B., Mycenaean Cemeteries in the Peloponnese

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Creighton, J., Rev. of Hingley, Londinium: A Biography. Roman London from Its Origins to the Fifth Century

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Hirschfeld, N., Rev. of Jasink, Weingarten, and Ferrara, eds., Non-scribal Communication Media in the Bronze Age Aegean and Surrounding Areas: The Semantics of A-literate and Proto-literate Media (Seals, Potmarks, Mason’s Marks, Seal-Impressed Pottery, Ideograms and Logograms, and Related Systems)

Holleran, C., Rev. of Hartnett, The Roman Street: Urban Life and Society in Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Rome

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Intagliata, E.E., Rev. of Winther-Jacobsen and Summerer, eds., Landscape Dynamics and Settlement Patterns in Northern Anatolia During the Roman and Byzantine Period

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